AGORA INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF JURIDICAL SCIENCES
ISSN 1843-570X, E-ISSN 2067-7677. Frequency: 2 issues/year. Acronym: AIJJS. Issue 1 of the journal is completed, finalized and published by June 30 of each year. Issue 2 of the journal is completed, finalized and published by December 30 of each year. AIJJS appears since 2007 and includes studies that are structured on the following scientific fields: Private Law, Public Law, Criminal Law and Criminalistics, Law and Education, International Law, European Law, Public Administration. Category B+ in CNCSIS2011. Indexing/ abstacting/ coverage:~EBSCO;~JournalTOCs;~Stanford Libraries;~vLex International Law;~High Court of Delhi;~HeinOnline. Starting with 2022 issues, the journal has 2 sections: Section I. Juridical Sciences and Section II. Administrative Sciences. Also, to encourage young researchers, beginning with 2023 issues, there was added Section III. Master Students. Agora International Journal of Juridical Sciences is recognized by the Italian National Agency for the Evaluation of the Academic and Research System (ANVUR), in category A, field 14 - Socio-legal sciences. This journal is guided and follows the principles of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE).
COMPETITION LAW IN THE SCANDINAVIAN LEGAL ORDER: A COMPARATIVE AND ENFORCEMENT-FOCUSED ANALYSIS OF NORWAY, FINLAND, AND SWEDEN
This article provides a comparative analysis of competition law in the Scandinavian countries, with particular emphasis on Norway, Finland, and Sweden. It examines how these jurisdictions apply a coherent regulatory logic to cartel enforcement and merger control, grounded in principles of substance over form, enforcement restraint, and the protection of the public interest. By integrating legal doctrine with economic analysis, the article demonstrates that Scandinavian competition regimes balance strict deterrence of hard-core cartels with forward looking merger control aimed at preventing structural harm to competition. In the European Union, Articles 101 and 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union address anticompetitive agreements and the abuse of dominant positions, forming the backbone of EU competition rules, against which the Scandinavian systems are assessed. The analysis shows that effective competition regulation in Scandinavia relies on aligning enforcement practices with broader societal objectives, including consumer welfare and market integrity.
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LEGALIZING MEDICAL CANNABIS AND AVOIDING ILLICIT MARKETS IN NIGERIA: A TRIPARTITE CASE STUDY ANALYSIS TOWARDS ACHIEVING AN EFFECTIVE MARKET MODEL
As Nigeria contemplates the legalization of medical cannabis to unlock its therapeutic and economic potential, it is imperative to learn from the experiences of pioneering nations. This paper conducts a comparative analysis of three distinct regulatory models—Canada’s comprehensive federal legalization, the Netherlands’ pragmatic tolerance through its coffee shop system, and the United States’ fragmented state-by-state approach—to dissect the persistent drivers and adaptive practices of illicit cannabis providers. Despite the establishment of legal medical and, in some cases, recreational markets, illicit operators have demonstrated remarkable resilience. The paper argues that their persistence is not a failure of legalization per se, but a direct consequence of specific policy designs that create competitive advantages for the illegal market. Through a detailed examination of the regulatory gaps and consumer preferences, the paper illuminates why illicit markets endure. It recommends a distinct pathway for the legalization of cannabis in Nigeria arising the different models of the three countries examined, to avoid the pitfalls inherent in their individual models. For Nigeria, the lessons are clear: a successful medical cannabis program must be deliberately designed to outcompete the illicit market from the outset. This requires a careful balancing act—implementing smart tax policies to ensure price competitiveness, creating inclusive and accessible regulatory frameworks that do not exclude small-scale farmers or patients, ensuring comprehensive product and geographic coverage, and learning from the enforcement pitfalls of the case studies.
INTERNATIONAL JUDICIAL COOPERATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE ADOPTION IN 2024 BY THE UNITED NATIONS OF THE CONVENTION ON CYBERCRIME
The practical application of the United Nations Convention against Cybercrime requires complementarity in the reactions of states or state unions to new opportunities for perpetrators of cybercrimes that are extremely dangerous for societies and the global economy. The application of the Convention strengthens the mechanisms for preventing and combating crimes in the digital space, but judicial cooperation must be based on a series of efficient procedures, in the context in which geographical territoriality is substituted by the fluidity of the virtual space of the Internet, sometimes without clear jurisdiction.
LEGAL REGULATIONS REGARDING THE PHENOMENON OF THE ACTIVITY OF FOREIGN SOLDIERS, ACCORDING TO THE LEGISLATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
Legal regulations on the activity of foreign soldiers in the Republic of Moldova represent a complex area, which is located at the intersection of national law, international law and national security norms. The phenomenon of the involvement of foreign soldiers on the territory of a sovereign state raises legal, political and social issues, and the legislative framework of the Republic of Moldova clearly regulates both their rights and obligations. This framework includes constitutional provisions on the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the state, specific legislation on national defense and security, as well as regulations on international military cooperation. At the same time, the Republic of Moldova is a party to various international treaties and agreements that influence the way in which foreign soldiers carry out their activities, including the principles of respect for human rights and limitation of the use of force. The regulations cover multiple aspects: authorizing the presence of foreign soldiers, the areas in which they can carry out activities, the limits of their powers, legal responsibilities in case of violation of the law and mechanisms for controlling their activities. The obligations of the host state towards public safety, legal order and protection of citizens' rights are also clarified, balancing the need for international cooperation with respect for national sovereignty. Thus, the study of legal regulations regarding the phenomenon of the activity of foreign soldiers in the Republic of Moldova provides a complete picture of how national legislation harmonizes security requirements, international cooperation and respect for the fundamental rights of the individual, creating a clear and predictable legal framework for the presence and activity of foreign military personnel on the territory of the country.
THE LEGALITY OF CRIMINALIZATION AND THE HISTORICAL EXCEPTION AT NÜRNBERG: A DOCTRINAL REASSESSMENT
This research reveals the general context of the principle of criminal legality in the architecture of the modern legal order, analyzed through the prism of its axiological foundation, which constitutes an essential guarantee of legal certainty and, implicitly, an instrument for preventing arbitrariness. The general issue focuses on the Nürnberg trials, approached from the perspective of a deeply philosophical derogation from the fundamental principle of criminal law nullum crimen sine lege, nulla poena sine lege. The paper addresses, from a theoretical and legal perspective, one of the most complex dilemmas of international criminal law - the relationship between criminal legality, as a fundamental guarantee of criminal law that protects the individual against arbitrariness, and the need to punish crimes against peace, humanity, and war in the absence of a pre-existing legal norm that clearly establishes the criminalization and punishment for such acts. The purpose of the research is to reevaluate the Nürnberg exception, which represented a turning point in light of subsequent developments in international criminal law. The results of the research directly highlight the fact that the Nürnberg exception did not actually undermine the principle of criminal legality but expanded its content, paving the way for the development of contemporary international criminal law and the strengthening of individual criminal responsibility for heinous international crimes. Therefore, the research highlights the role of the principle of criminal legality as an axiological foundation and guarantee of legal order, while also emphasizing the need for a nuanced understanding of it in contemporary international criminal law, where the balance between legality and moral equity remains a topical theoretical and practical issue.
ANALYSIS OF THE OBJECTIVE PART AND COMPOSITION OF THE CRIME AIMED AT VIOLATING PUBLIC ORDER AND PEACE
The establishment of criminal liability, as well as the direct prohibition of human behavior that causes or may cause harm, constitutes one of the most important and complex tasks of criminal law. This mission derives from the fundamental need of society to protect its internal order and essential social relations, using the specific instruments of criminal law, considered the last and most energetic means of legal defense. In the doctrine of criminal law, an essential theoretical distinction has crystallized between the de facto basis and the de jure basis of criminal liability, each having its role in the process of establishing guilt and holding the person accountable. The de facto basis of criminal liability presupposes the finding of the existence of a concrete, prejudicial act, committed in the real world. This involves the identification and exact description of the conduct and the consequence produced or threatened, as well as the establishment of all elements related to the objective side of the crime: the illicit action or inaction, the socially dangerous consequence, the causal link, the means, the manner and the circumstances in which the act was committed. However, the mere presence of an act that corresponds to the objective characteristics of a crime is not sufficient to engage the criminal liability of a person. Criminal law does not only sanction the external manifestation of the conduct, but requires a complex, multidimensional analysis, which also includes other elements indispensable for the legal qualification. Consequently, there is a need to establish the de jure basis of criminal liability, which consists in determining the existence of all the constituent elements of the crime, in the sense fully defined by criminal legislation. This basis is much more comprehensive, because it involves not only verifying the objective side, but also the subjective side, the object of the crime, the subject of the crime and all the essential signs provided for by the incrimination norm. Only when all these elements are met can the existence of the crime be confirmed in the legal sense and, implicitly, the person can be held criminally liable. Thus, the composition of the crime becomes the true de jure basis for criminal liability, which is expressly provided for and enshrined by the legislation in force, more precisely by the provisions of art. 51 of the Criminal Code of the Republic of Moldova, which enshrines the principle according to which criminal liability can be incurred only if all the constitutive elements of the crime are present. In this regard, the doctrine emphasizes that, in the absence of any essential element of the composition, criminal liability cannot be established, even if the act itself presents a prejudicial appearance.
ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA (UNCLOS) IN NIGERIA’S MARITIME RESOURCE GOVERNANCE
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides the primary international legal framework for maritime resource governance. This paper examined the effectiveness of UNCLOS in Nigeria’s maritime domain, analyzing its implementation across Nigeria’s maritime zones and resource sectors. Through doctrinal legal analysis, the study evaluated Nigeria's compliance with UNCLOS obligations in fisheries management, environmental protection, and maritime security. It revealed that while Nigeria has ratified UNCLOS and enacted implementing legislations, significant gaps exist between normative commitments and practical implementation. The paper argued that UNCLOS effectiveness in Nigeria is undermined by inadequate domestic legislation, institutional fragmentation, enforcement deficits, and limited technical capacity. It concluded that enhancing UNCLOS effectiveness requires comprehensive legislative reform, institutional strengthening, improved enforcement mechanisms, and enhanced regional cooperation.
CRITICISMS REGARDING THE LEGAL STATUS OF WORK GROUPS IN THE NEW PENSION LAW IN ROMANIA
This paper brings to the fore a more detailed discussion of what work groups are and their implications in establishing the right to a pension for persons who meet the conditions set out in the legal provisions in force at the date on which the right to a pension arises. We consider this topic to be particularly important and topical because in Romania there are many pensioners who receive pensions and who, in many cases, turn to the competent courts, specifically the courts in the district where the pensioners who are plaintiffs are domiciled, in order to have the amounts that the territorial pension houses must pay as pensions correctly determined. Next, we will start with a series of activities that are considered to be in work groups I and II, and we will analyse a series of normative acts that regulate the method of calculating pensions according to work groups based on the date on which the right to a pension arises. We will also analyse some provisions of the new pension law, namely Law No. 360/2023, which concerns the method of granting pensions based on work, which we will also examine through the filter of constitutionality. Through examples from case law, we will highlight whether the courts have correctly determined the pension due to the retired claimants by applying the relevant regulatory provisions.
PARTICULARITIES OF LEGAL ACTION FOR COMPENSATION OF DAMAGES CAUSED TO THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
The legal regulations concerning the procedural aspects of compensating for damage caused to the animal kingdom establish the normative framework and mechanisms through which harm to wildlife is assessed and remedied. These regulations include provisions from civil, administrative, and, in some cases, criminal law, aiming to protect biodiversity and ensure accountability for those responsible for damages. The damage compensation procedure follows several stages, including identifying the harm, determining the form of legal liability, assessing the impact on the ecosystem, and implementing compensatory or ecological restoration measures. This study aims to analyse the legal regulations applicable to the compensation for damage to the animal kingdom, highlighting both theoretical aspects and practical challenges encountered in their implementation. Additionally, it will examine the procedural mechanisms involved in damage assessment, liability determination, and the application of compensatory or ecological restoration measures.
THE PATRIMONY IN THE LIGHT OF CURRENT LEGAL REGULATIONS
Patrimony is one of the fundamental concepts of civil law, continuously evolving under the influence of economic, technological, and social transformations. From the classical conception of patrimony as a single legal universality, contemporary law has come to recognize autonomous patrimonial masses, the patrimony of affectation, as well as new forms of digital, cultural, and ecological patrimony. This article aims to analyze the concept of patrimony in the light of current legal regulations, focusing on the provisions of the New Civil Code, recent doctrinal developments, and the challenges generated by the digital economy and globalization.
IS THERE A REDUNDANT OVERLAP OF LEGAL PROVISION OF THE ROMANIAN CRIMINAL CODE IN THE CASES OF VIOLENT ACTS PERPETRATED IN PUBLIC SPACES?
The article aims to analyze the impact of the enforcement of the Law no. 248 of July 20, 2023 on the situations involving the use of violence in public spaces, in the presence of non-participating persons. Specifically, the law introduces aggravating variants for both the offense of assault and other violence when committed in public spaces and for the offense of disturbing public order and peace, when committed through acts of violence. Therefore, the concurrent application of the aggravating variants of the two offenses raises an analysis that constitutes the subject of this article and it has a significant practical significance because there is a certain and very high probability that this type of case will be the subject of criminal cases.
PRACTICAL ISSUES REGARDING THE INTERPRETATION OF CRIMINAL AND CIVIL RULES
The authors, after presenting a set of contradictory opposing judicial practices as an indisputable judicial and social reality, attempt to substantiate the types, principles, forms, techniques and methods of interpretation of the law, presented - usually - through general formulations, on realistic criteria and by critically distancing themselves from positivist clichés. From such a perspective, it seeks and sketches a conceptual model through which to describe the law (norm) subject to interpretation, the legal professions that indicate the subjects with competence to interpret, as well as jurisprudence starting from their social foundation: the set of values, interests, principles and laws structured in a confused hierarchy and in continuous movement, evolution. Interpretation in situations of uncertainty can only be achieved by searching for the real foundations of the legal institution in which the norm is located. The judge, the protagonist of the interpretation, as well as his professional will, is given preferential space: his will is sovereign – his independence is the effect of his sovereign will – because he has the fundamentally statutory mission of ruling on atypical situations, in which no one can know in advance how to proceed nor can he offer uncontestable interpretations.
LEGISLATIVE MODELS REGARDING PROSTITUTION, PIMPING, AND HUMAN TRAFFICKING: INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW AND STATE OBLIGATIONS
Prostitution, pimping, and human trafficking are global phenomena with profound social, economic, and legal implications. These issues are recognized as violations of human dignity and human rights within the international legal framework, which imposes binding obligations on states to combat exploitation and protect victims (CAP International, n.d.). This paper examines the international legal framework governing these phenomena, analyzes the main legislative models, and discusses the impacts and risks associated with legalization and decriminalization of prostitution.
BLOCKCHAIN AND DATA PRIVACY IN NIGERIA: RECONCILING INNOVATION WITH THE NIGERIA DATA PROTECTION ACT 2023
The rapid adoption of digital technologies has amplified concerns over privacy and data protection, particularly in developing regions such as Africa. Nigeria’s Data Protection Act (NDPA) 2023 provides a comprehensive framework for safeguarding personal data by stipulating lawful bases for processing, ensuring security, and establishing rights of data subjects. Meanwhile, blockchain technology has emerged as a prominent privacy-enhancing technology (PET), valued for its decentralization, immutability, and cryptographic security. However, blockchain’s transparency and permanent storage of records raise tensions with confidentiality principles and rights such as erasure, central to both the NDPA and the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). This paper critically examines blockchain’s compatibility with Nigeria’s NDPA, assessing how features such as pseudonymization, decentralization, and replication align—or conflict—with statutory principles including lawfulness, fairness, data minimization, storage limitation, and accuracy. The study highlights blockchain’s potential to reinforce data integrity and security while underscoring legal and practical challenges in reconciling its technical features with privacy rights.
CRIME RELATED PHENOMENA - DRUG ADDICTION AND PROSTITUTION (EXPERIENCE OF THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA)
Throughout history, societies have adopted diverse approaches to addressing phenomena such as drug addiction and prostitution, often conceptualized as interconnected “satellites” of criminality. Although the use of psychoactive substances and the practice of prostitution date back to antiquity, contemporary socio-economic transformations have significantly reshaped their forms and impact. In the Republic of Moldova, as well as in other states of the former Soviet Union, the transition to a market economy, coupled with rapid developments in information and communication technologies, has generated new dynamics, patterns of vulnerability, and modalities of engagement in both drug use and sex work. The drug addiction phenomenon has evolved into a critical public health challenge, marked by increasing morbidity, heightened mortality rates, and substantial burdens on healthcare systems. Simultaneously, its ramifications extend far beyond the medical sphere, constituting a complex social-legal issue that fuels criminal behaviour, undermines social cohesion, and perpetuates cycles of marginalization and alienation. Prostitution, likewise, continues to generate profound ethical, social, and legal debates regarding individual autonomy, exploitation, and public order. Together, these phenomena threaten not only the well-being and security of individuals directly involved but also the broader societal interest, as their persistence hinders social development, reduces collective resilience, and compromises efforts to consolidate democratic governance and the rule of law. Understanding the interconnected nature of drug addiction and prostitution is therefore essential for developing holistic, evidence-based policies aimed at prevention, harm reduction, and social reintegration. This necessitates interdisciplinary research and coordinated institutional action capable of addressing the structural, psychological, and economic factors driving these practices
JURISPRUDENTIAL ANALYSIS OF ILLEGAL MARKET ACTIVITIES IN CONFLICT ZONES OF GEORGIA: THE CASES OF SOUTH OSSETIA AND ABKHAZIA
This study examines illegal market activities in Abkhazia and South Ossetia through a jurisprudential lens, highlighting the interaction between contested sovereignty, hybrid governance, and normative law. Georgian domestic legislation, including the Law on Occupied Territories (2008), and international legal regimes; Hague Regulations, Geneva Convention IV, UN Charter, and ECHR provide a formal framework for regulating trade, protecting property, and safeguarding civilian rights. However, de facto authorities, supported by Russian control, operate parallel institutions that sustain shadow economies, smuggling networks, and hybrid governance structures. These informal systems persist because formal law cannot penetrate territories under external occupation or effective control, producing dual normative orders and reinforcing de facto political structures. By mapping empirical evidence of illicit trade flows alongside legal doctrines, the study demonstrates how law remains symbolic yet essential for post-conflict accountability and transitional mechanisms. The paper underscores the need for adaptive legal strategies that reconcile international obligations with on-the-ground realities without legitimizing illicit actors.
A COMPARATIVE APPRAISAL OF TORTURE AS A PROCEDURAL CLOG TO THE ADMINISTRATION OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE IN NIGERIA AND RUSSIA
The phenomenon of torture remains a serious concern to human rights scholars, activists and practitioners. The United Nations Convention against Torture, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 1984 (UNCTIDTP, 1984) is a ratified Convention by Russia and Nigeria. While Russia is yet to domesticate the Convention, Nigeria has in accordance with section 12 of its Constitution albeit with some of the provisions of the Convention excised. This paper appraises the concept of torture in both Russia and Nigeria within the context of the administration of criminal justice and compares the countries legal regimes against the use of torture in criminal investigation. The paper found that torture delays criminal trials, occasionally occasions miscarriage of justice and Nigeria’s domestication UNCTIDTP, 1984 remained a lesson for Russia. While Russia needs to domesticate the UNCTIDTS, 1984 like Nigeria has done, both countries should put in place strong enforcement mechanisms, criminalizing torture with stiff penalties like a life sentence or death penalty.
COMPARATIVE ASPECTS OF THE PROVISIONS OF THE CRIMINAL PROCEDURE CODE OF THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA REGARDING EXTRAORDINARY REVIEW
This study examines the impact of the reform of the institution of extraordinary review in criminal proceedings—implemented through Law No. 246/2023—on judicial practice in the Republic of Moldova, with particular reference to the case law of the Supreme Court of Justice. The amendments to Articles 458–462 of the Criminal Procedure Code have redefined the function of extraordinary review as an essential mechanism for correcting judicial errors and ensuring alignment with the standards of the European Convention on Human Rights. The research underscores the clarification of jurisdictional criteria, the distinction between procedural and substantive examination, and the strengthening of the relationship between domestic procedures and the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights. The findings reveal a doctrinal and jurisprudential shift toward ensuring effective protection of fundamental rights and enhancing the predictability of criminal proceedings.
THE ISSUE OF ORGANISING THE INVESTIGATION OF CORRUPTION OFFENCES COMMITTED BY PUBLIC OFFICIALS WITH SPECIAL STATUS BASED ON THE PRACTICE OF THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
This article examines the structural obstacles that undermine the investigation of corruption offences committed by public officials with special status, emphasising that many acquittals stem not from a lack of evidence but from deficiencies in criminalistic organisation and improper evidentiary management. The study shows that the failure to specify the official’s concrete duties in the indictment, the unlawful establishment of the criminal investigation team, and the non-observance of legal requirements concerning the authorisation and use of special investigative measures generate significant evidentiary vulnerabilities. Likewise, shortcomings in the organisation of flagrant operations and the superficial manner in which hearings are conducted affect the integrity of the criminal process, while any form of inducement or provocation by state agents leads to the exclusion of evidence. The article highlights the need to establish a rigorous evidentiary discipline, to ensure a clear correlation between the alleged conduct and the official’s competences, and to strengthen prosecutorial oversight of the investigative process. Consolidating these mechanisms is essential for enhancing both the efficiency and the credibility of criminal proceedings in corruption cases.
ENFORCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN THE OPERATIONS OF THE OIL AND GAS INDUTRY IN NIGERIA: NEED FOR A PARADIGM SHIFT
In general, more regulation was expected to harness the EIA tool for improved governance of the oil and gas industry’s operations, where as it stands now; not much has been achieved yet. The country suffers a great deal due to poor control and management of events in the oil and gas sector that result in environmental issues such as contamination, pollution and ruins; even with all the laws, regulations and institutional directives. The doctrinal research approach which guided this study towards the examination on what constitutes the activities of a certain and particular area (i.e. oil and or gas), their manner of operation (including those relating to EIA requirements) as well as their compliance level both with national legal framework and others such like international conventions- treaties-protocols-textbook references-case laws among others, with regard to how enforcement or compliance cum recommendation on environmental concerns/ social-economic developmental initiatives have so far been pursued. Thus far, some activities seemingly complies with current needs (societal demands) without prejudicing its future generations’ entitlements. There is ample evidence showing that operations of oil companies in Nigeria led to severe negative impacts on environment, aquatic animals, jobs, economic trees and crops due to recurrent spillages, fire incidences as well as gas flaring which could have largely been stopped or minimized if proper enforcement of directives and recommendations were put into practice. Specific suggestions on measures for bringing about improved socio-economic/deployment without compromising environmental integrity for posterity in Nigerian Oil Industry are equally recommended.
CHILDHOOD SAFETY BETWEEN LAW, EDUCATION AND SOCIETY
Children's rights are regulated at national and international levels, all of which guarantee fundamental rights and establish precise responsibilities for parents and the state. Their education is basically a process through which we all want to shape them into responsible adults. Parents, the state, society try to help them develop their skills and personality through all the means at their disposal. Society is equally important in this process of shaping children into future adults, playing a massive role in their socio-emotional, moral and cognitive development, Children are the keys to Paradise, said Eric Hoffer, the great American philosopher. Perfect, serene and pure beings, they are a treasure, the most precious treasure. And yet...
THE LACANIAN SUBJECT IN THE CONTEXT OF US LEGISLATION
The notion of the subject is one met in different areas of the human and real or hard sciences. From literature to biology, the subject is omnipresent but rarely notion that holds the same fundamental substance or role. In the case of law, psychology and grammar we are speaking of the nucleus of analysis in all three areas of study. In this article we will try and see if there is any connection beyond this apparent fact through the lens of Lacanian psychoanalysis and how can all these three areas connect further in order to conjure up new paths of understanding
OFFENCES UNDER LAW NO. 206/2025 ON AQUACULTURE. LEGISLATIVE TECHNICAL ASPECTS
Law no. 206/2025 on aquaculture, which entered into force on December 7, 2025, is an extremely useful legal instrument in the reference field because it establishes the legal framework for the development of this economic sector in our country, while ensuring the possibility of sustainable development in the rural environment. Like any other normative act regulating a specific field, this law also contains the chapter on liability and sanctions, which also includes the part of incrimination norms. These incrimination norms are part, according to art. 173 of the Criminal Code, of the scope of the concept of "criminal law". In this context, it is necessary to analyse the legal content of the offenses in this law, emphasizing the norms of legislative technique.
RULES FOR RECOGNITION OF PROPERTY, PLANT AND EQUIPMENT IN FINANCIAL STATEMENTS IN ACCORDANCE WITH ACCOUNTING RULES OF IFRS FOR SME IN AZERBAIJAN
Property, plant and equipment represent a critical component of enterprise activity and therefore occupy a central position in financial statements. This article presents a comparative analysis of the sections in which these assets are reported and the manner in which they are disclosed. Although the reporting forms and their required content are defined in the accounting rules aligned with the International Financial Reporting Standard for Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (IFRS for SMEs), the guidance lacks detailed instructions on how the information should be presented. The article highlights inconsistencies in reporting formats and issues arising from inaccurate translations of report titles that diverge from the original standards. It further examines the relationship between IFRS for SMEs and the forthcoming IFRS 18 “Presentation of Financial Statements,” which will replace IAS 1 in 2027. Using IFRS 18 as a reference, the study compares disclosure requirements and summarizes key sections related to property, plant and equipment through tabular analysis.
THE IMPACT OF ELECTORAL CONFLICT ON SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: NIGERIA AS A CASE STUDY
Electoral conflict has destroyed every aspect of Nigeria’s existence including social development and democratic stability. The resort to violence and conflict to pursue political goals has been a steady occurrence in Nigeria's political landscape since independence. Fraudulent practices and ethnic and religious tensions have continued to sabotage the will of the electorates and have far-reaching consequences, including loss of lives, destruction of properties and displacement of people. The election of Nigeria in the fourth republic has been plagued by electoral conflict and unfortunately, the youths have been at the forefront of this electoral conflict. This paper explores the impact of electoral conflict on Nigeria’s key social indicators such as education, healthcare, infrastructure, and community cohesion. It examines the root causes of electoral violence, including political manipulation, weak democratic institutions and ethno-religious tensions while analyzing their ripple effects on social progress. This paper in adopting a doctrinal methodology data collection method and relying on relevant statutory provisions and case laws will highlight the significant impact electoral conflict has on Nigeria’s socio-economic development including undermining infrastructural development, political stability, economic development, and increasing religious tension etc. This research enriches the broader discourse on the need for robust democratic practices in governance and social development, offering valuable insights for legal professionals, political leaders, lawmakers, law students and social commentators alike.
DIGITAL MARKETS ACT – A NEW PARADIGM OF EUROPEAN COMPETITION LAW. DOCTRINAL PERSPECTIVES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ROMANIA
The adoption of Regulation (EU) 2022/1925 on digital markets, commonly known as the Digital Markets Act (DMA), marks a turning point in the development of European competition law. Faced with the challenges posed by the digital economy and the rise of global technology giants, traditional ex post competition law has proven insufficient to ensure the maintenance of effective competition. The DMA introduces an ex ante regulatory mechanism applicable to “gatekeepers” – digital platforms that hold a structurally dominant position and can distort competition before the occurrence of an actual abuse. This article analyzes the theoretical foundations of this new paradigm, the normative content of the DMA, and its implications for the Romanian legal order, addressing the relationship between regulation and competition, as well as the institutional challenges arising from its practical implementation.
THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE CHALLENGES GENERATED BY THE NEW AMERICAN ADMINISTRATION. THE CONTEXT OF THE DETERIORATION OF RELATIONS WITH THE USA
Transatlantic relations, their consolidation after the Second World War, have been essential for the stability and security of Europe. However, in recent years, this strategic alliance has experienced significant deterioration, generated by multiple factors, such as political changes in the US, strategic divergences in the face of new global threats and the emergence of European autonomy in the field of security and intelligence. These changes have profoundly impacted the way in which Europe builds its security and intelligence capabilities, but also the nature of collaboration with traditional partners. This essay analyzes the causes and effects of the deterioration of transatlantic relations, providing a complex perspective on its implications for European security, with a focus on the field of intelligence and European strategic responses. The purpose of this article is to analyze how the new American administration has influenced European security, with a focus on relations in the fields of intelligence and defense. It will be demonstrated that, although partnership remains indispensable, the EU is forced to assume greater strategic autonomy and develop its own intelligence mechanisms.
THE EMBODIED SPIRAL OF MEANING: REIMAGINING LEADERSHIP THROUGH SYMBOLIC, REFLECTIVE, AND SOMATIC INTEGRATION
Contemporary organizations face a paradox: symbolic communication, digital information, and narrative complexity are rapidly increasing, while the lived experience of meaning, coherence, and embodied presence is diminishing. This paper introduces The Embodied Spiral of Meaning as a philosophical–organizational framework that reimagines leadership through the integration of symbolic, reflective, and somatic dimensions. Building on Cassirer’s Homo Symbolicus and extending it through Homo Cognoscens (reflective awareness) and Homo Somaticus (embodied presence), the paper develops the Symbolic Spiral of Leadership as an evolving field of meaning-making rather than a fixed competency set. Drawing on phenomenology, developmental theory, and contemporary leadership scholarship, it traces the shift from heroic, control-based models toward relational and embodied forms of leadership. The paper argues that leadership effectiveness depends on aligning symbolic coherence, reflective insight, and somatic grounding, and concludes that organizational evolution requires not more information but deeper integration of meaning and being.
THE INTERVENTION IN LIBYA: LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS AND THE FIRST DECADE AFTER GADDAFI
The 2011 international intervention in Libya constitutes a pivotal case in contemporary debates on the use of force, humanitarian intervention, and the Responsibility to Protect (R2P). Authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1970 and 1973, the intervention was justified as a necessary measure to prevent imminent mass atrocities against civilians, particularly in the city of Benghazi. While the operation was widely regarded as legally grounded and normatively legitimate in its initial phase, its long-term consequences have generated sustained legal, political, and ethical controversy. This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the Libyan intervention by examining its legal basis, operational implementation, and the first decade following the collapse of the Gaddafi regime. It argues that although the intervention likely succeeded in averting an immediate humanitarian catastrophe, it failed to ensure sustainable post-conflict stabilization. The absence of a coherent strategy for institutional reconstruction, security sector reform, and political reconciliation contributed to prolonged state fragmentation, civil conflict, and regional destabilization, particularly in the Sahel. By situating the Libyan case within broader debates on R2P and collective security, the article highlights the risks associated with ambiguous Security Council mandates and premature international disengagement. It concludes that future humanitarian interventions must integrate a robust “Responsibility to Rebuild” in order to reconcile civilian protection with long-term peace and governance.
THE EDUCATIONAL DIMENSION AND THE ROLE OF STUDENTS IN QUALITY ASSURANCE PROCESSES
Within the framework of European policies for Quality Assurance in Higher Education, promoted at supranational level by ENQA, Students participation is considered a structural element of university evaluation and continuous improvement processes. In addition to meeting regulatory requirements, such participation has a clear educational value, constituting a formative experience capable of developing skills relevant to the academic citizenship and future professionalism of the students involved. This paper analyses Students participation in quality assurance systems, taking the European Standards and Guidelines as a reference and proposing the Italian case of the Self-Assessment, Evaluation and Accreditation (AVA) procedures devised by ANVUR (National Agency for the Evaluation of Universities and Research Institutes) as an example of the national implementation of European policies. The focus is on the role of Students Evaluation Experts (SEV), understood as active participants in situated learning, co-responsibility and Peer training. The contribution adopts a theoretical framework oriented towards a reflective-experiential approach based on the analysis of active representation practices, Peer Training courses and feedback activities, which show how the involvement of Students in QA processes can promote the development of transversal skills such as critical thinking, evaluation skills, institutional communication and the assumption of responsibility in the organizations where they work. In conclusion, the contribution proposes interpreting Quality Assurance processes as learning environments and university governance as an advanced pedagogical space, in which Students participation contributes to the construction of a European culture of quality based on awareness, participation and skills development. Finally, the article proposes a reflection that recognizes Quality Assurance processes as learning environments and university governance as an advanced educational space, promoting a culture of quality based on informed participation, skills development and shared responsibility.
STRENGTHENING THE LINK BETWEEN PRE-UNIVERSITY EDUCATION AND HIGHER EDUCATION IN ALBANIA: STRATEGIC APPROACHES AND GOOD PRACTICES
The transition from pre-university to higher education is a critical phase that shapes students’ academic success and long-term development. In Albania, bridging this gap is essential for creating a more coherent, inclusive, and responsive education system. Among the most promising strategies are those that focus on building concrete bridges of cooperation between secondary schools and higher education institutions. Formal cooperation agreements and joint initiatives between these institutions significantly improve students’ awareness of academic pathways and career opportunities. Likewise, regular collaborative activities—such as co-designed workshops, mentoring programs, and shared academic projects—not only enhance mutual understanding of curricular expectations but also contribute to smoother student transitions. To support these efforts, adopting a benchmarking approach—drawing on successful models from comparable countries—can provide practical direction. The centers are jointly supported by schools, universities, and local authorities, and play a vital role in aligning educational pathways with labor market needs and higher education demands. This paper explores these strategic approaches and highlights good practices that foster alignment between competencies, programs, and institutional cultures. By reinforcing these links, Albania can enhance student preparedness, reduce dropout rates, and foster a more integrated academic journey for future generations.
THE IMPACT OF THE EUROPEANIZATION PROCESS ON NATIONAL PUBLIC POLICY-MAKING: BETWEEN ADMINISTRATIVE ADAPTATION AND RESILIENCE
This paper examines the Europeanization of public policy-making and its impact on national administrative systems, with a particular focus on Romania. Drawing on theoretical frameworks of Europeanization, policy transfer, and institutional adaptation, the study analyzes both mechanisms of influence and patterns of administrative resistance. The research identifies how EU institutions, top-down directives, and horizontal governance processes shape national policies, while highlighting the challenges of balancing European requirements with domestic priorities. Comparative insights reveal the interplay between administrative capacity, institutional culture, and political dynamics in determining the success of adaptation. The paper concludes by discussing implications for public administration reform, emphasizing capacity-building, stakeholder involvement, and evidence-based policy-making, and outlines future research directions for understanding long-term Europeanization processes.
LEGAL GOVERNANCE: A STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT TOOL FOR ORGANISATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY
In an era characterised by regulatory complexity, technological disruption, and societal demand for transparency, legal governance emerges as a key managerial function that transcends traditional compliance. This paper explores the integration of legal governance within strategic management as a mechanism for achieving organisational sustainability. Drawing on theories of governance, stakeholder management, and institutional resilience, it argues that legal governance is not merely a reactive legal function but a proactive strategic tool. By embedding legal principles within the culture, decision-making, and operations of organisations, managers can transform law from a constraint into a catalyst for sustainable growth.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AND TEACHERS’ SOCIAL SKILLS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL: AN EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS IN THE EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK
Article 27 of the National Collective Labour Agreement for Schools defines the competencies that make up the teacher’s professional profile, without, however, explicitly mentioning communicative skills, which nevertheless form the foundation of all teaching activity. The European Recommendations and the DigCompEdu Framework reaffirm the importance of communicative competences, urging schools to integrate them into educational processes. This study explores the role of nonverbal communication as a strategic factor in shaping classroom climate and educational relationships. Drawing on international contributions, an exploratory investigation was conducted on seven primary school teachers, observed through structured grids. The results show that only one out of seven teachers effectively uses nonverbal communication, while most display weaknesses, particularly in voice modulation and facial expressiveness, which have a direct impact on student engagement. The study therefore suggests introducing specific training modules aimed at developing teachers’ communicative awareness and improving the quality of learning environments.
ETHICS BY DESIGN: INTEGRATING LEGAL PRINCIPLES INTO THE MANAGEMENT OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Artificial intelligence (AI) has moved from experimental technology to an integral component of strategic management. Yet, as algorithms increasingly shape human decisions, the question of how to embed ethics and legality into AI systems becomes central. This article examines the concept of Ethics by Design — the proactive integration of ethical and legal principles into the architecture, governance, and operation of AI. By bridging law, management, and ethics, the study argues that sustainable innovation requires more than regulatory compliance: it demands organisational structures that internalise moral and legal accountability. The paper outlines the foundations of ethical AI governance, the managerial implications of algorithmic accountability, and the role of law in ensuring human-centred digital transformation.
ANALYZING THE EVOLUTION OF DIGITALIZED GOVERNANCE RESEARCH: INSIGHTFUL PUBLICATION TRENDS AND GAPS
The paper attempts to throw light on the publication trends of digitalized governance by using a more inclusive approach of using keywords such as “e-governance”, “digital governance” and “smart governance”. By searching and extracting the relevant records from the Web of Science (WOS) Core Collection, the paper conducted bibliometric analysis on 1154 selected records that met the selection criteria. The analysis revealed that the number of publications is increasing on yearly basis in the past 5 years. This could be attributed to growing interest of researchers in this subject as well as an escalating concern among the scholars regarding increasing social issues and public awareness towards them. Similarly, most of the paper were published in China, the United State of America and India, with a substantial contribution from the Western and Central regions of Europe. Therefore, the paper emphasizes on disparities in the literature of this field and based on an in-depth analysis, concludes that future scholars should focus more on the collaboration of multiple stakeholders while studying digitalized governance.
THE IMPACT OF CRISIS-MILITARIST STAGES OF CYCLICAL SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT ON ECONOMIC INTERESTS
The purpose of this article is to examine economic interests in the context of the influence of crisis-militaristic phases of global cycles on the conditions for their realisation. Economic interests play an important role in cyclical societal development, being one of the main drivers of societal progress and at the same time giving rise to deep interclass and geopolitical contradictions. The intensification of these contradictions leads to crises at the level at which they arise. The periodic intensification of geopolitical contradictions, largely due to the conflict of economic interests of geopolitical actors, leads to the unfolding of crisis-militaristic phases of global cycles. After the completion of these phases of global cycles, a new geopolitical hierarchy is established in the capitalist world system, which means that new conditions are formed for the realisation of the economic interests of states and, as a consequence, for the realisation of the economic interests of their national businesses and populations. The leader of the global geopolitical system receives the main advantages for the realisation of economic interests. During crisis-militaristic phases, states involved in geopolitical struggles shift to some extent towards the militarisation of the economy and a mobilisation-based form of societal life. The militarisation of the economy involves an increase in state military spending, which improves conditions for the economic interests of businesses necessary for the military economy and worsens conditions for non-militaristic businesses and the population. If military spending is increased by redistributing state financial resources in their favour at the expense of social spending, the social quality of life for broad sections of the population deteriorates, which means that conditions for human development deteriorate. Already today, in the process of transition to the crisis-militaristic phase of the current long cycle of world politics, there is a significant slowdown in progress in the field of human development.
WORKING TOWARDS AN EDUCATION POLICY FOR PROMOTING INTERACTION AMONG EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND FAMILIES
This article addresses the growing need for coherent European education policies that explicitly recognise families as strategic partners in educational processes. Focusing on the Italian case as an illustrative example, the paper analyses the evolution of school–family relationships from formal participation towards substantive educational co-responsibility. Drawing on pedagogical and sociological theory, national and European normative frameworks, and comparative evidence from OECD reports, the study highlights the central role of relational practices, teacher professionalism, and school autonomy in promoting effective interaction between educational institutions and families. The analysis underscores how persistent educational inequalities across Europe are closely linked to family background, thereby reinforcing the urgency of policy approaches that support structured, dialogical, and inclusive school–family partnerships. The article concludes by proposing operational orientations aligned with European policy priorities, aimed at strengthening shared educational responsibility and fostering students’ autonomy, equity, and long-term educational success.
CONTINUOUS TRAINING AND THE REFLECTIVE ROLE OF TEACHERS IN PREVENTING SCHOOL DROPOUT
School dropout represents one of the most pressing challenges for contemporary education systems, with significant implications for both individual well-being and social cohesion. This study examines the role of continuous professional development in preventing early school dropout, emphasizing the importance of observational and reflective practices in enhancing teaching quality. Through a theoretical-critical analysis and the exploration of innovative educational experiences, the paper investigates training models that position teachers as facilitators of learning. The study highlights the need for educational policies that adopt a systemic approach to teacher training, fostering student engagement and academic success.